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Eulalia said:
long poles were used to knock the nuts down when they were ripe, and that activity also got rid of diseased branches, and/ or pruned off the old ones that had fruited, as the tree fruits on new growth. Or beating simply stresses the tree - many plants under stress (drought, disease etc.) flower more vigorously, it's an adaptation for species survival. Another view is that beating the trunk would leave 'burrs' in the timber, which were regarded as ornamental when it was used for furniture making.
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Well it is the usual justification isn't it ... a measured amount of beating is said to raise productivity and improve character :D
 
Just now saw this on my feed and thought I would drop it off for any who are interested. There is a new history out by Emma Southon focusing on Ancient Roman murder and capital punishment called A Fatal Thing Happened On The Way To The Forum. Sounds right up our alley. For instance, a wealthy Patrician, Vedius Pollio, maintained a pond of man eating eels into which he would have slaves thrown who displeased him. And following a link, I learned that a famed beast tamer of the arena trained various wild animals to rape humans to death. Here's the link to the interview with the author:

arstechnica.com

Stabbing, crucifixion, eaten by eels: Learn all about murder the Roman way

Emma Southon discusses her new book, A Fatal Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum.
arstechnica.com arstechnica.com

And the link I followed to an article about the horrors of the Roman "Halftime Show."

www.livescience.com

Could You Stomach the Horrors of 'Halftime' in Ancient Rome?

The citizens and rulers of ancient Rome demanded death, rape and horrors for their entertainment and turned 'halftime' into a bloody art.
www.livescience.com www.livescience.com

Please excuse me if these resources are already known to those who frequent this thread.
 
Roman Soldiers

In my story, The Fate of a Goth Girl, I introduced two ranks in the Roman army, Optio et Tesserarius. Many readers were unaware of these positions, and it has prompted some questions about the organization of the Imperial Roman Army. I shall try here to answer some of those questions. If I am in error or omit helpful information, please feel free to make your contribution.

The army commanders under the Republic were the two consules (consuls) elected for that year. Proconsules (proconsuls), men who became governor of a province or a military commander following a term as consul, might also lead an army, such as Caesar in Gaul. In the Empire, these positions were mainly appointed by the Emperor.

Legions were led by a Legatus Legionis (Legate of the Legion, lit. deputy or ambassador). Since a legion was approximately a brigade's size, one might loosely rank a legate as a Brigadier General. Second in command was the Tribunus Laticlavius (Broad Striped Tribune), who wore a toga with wide stripes. These were usually quite young and often the son of the Legate.

Third in rank was the Praefectus castrorum (camp prefect/commander). These were usually drawn from former Primus Pilus (see below) and had been given equestrian status when retired as PP. These were the day-to-day administrators of the Legion.

Each Legion had five military tribunes of equestrian (knightly) class citizens called Tribuni Angusticlavii (Narrow Striped Tribunes). They were, in many cases, career officers and served many of the important administrative tasks of the Legion but could serve in a full tactical command function during engagements.

All of these officers were political appointees. They were aristocrats of the senatorial or equestrian class, distinct in social standing to the rest of the Legion, who were commoners, plebs. Many of these officers were enlisted for relatively brief terms (one to five years).


After the Marian reforms of 107 BC, the Roman army's vast bulk was made up of professional soldiers, the fighting men. By the time of the Empire, the enlistment term was twenty years plus five in the reserves. Many served thirty or forty years. The names of these were as follows:

Tirones (beginner – English tyro comes from this) - basic recruit. About six months before becoming a miles.
Miles Gregarius (Soldier of the herd) – private foot soldiers
Immunes (Specialists immune from standard camp labor), Discens (specialist in training)

Beginning with the next group, we face the difficulty in comparing Roman officers with modern ranks. The systems for these are very different. However, I shall use the most commonly accepted equivalents and explain as I go.

Principales - NCOs? Similar in some ways to color sergeants. Listed highest to lowest rank:
Aquilifer - A single position within the Legion. The Aquilifer was the Legion's Standard or Eagle bearer. Next rank below Centurion.
Optio Centuriae – “pick of the century” second in command of a Century, carried a hastile as a symbol and weapon of command.
Tesserarius – watch or guard commander, third in command of Century.
Signifer - responsible for the men's pay and savings, and the standard bearer for the Signum Centuriae, a spear shaft decorated with medallions and often topped with an open hand to signify the oath of loyalty taken by the soldiers. It was this banner that the men from each Centuria would rally around.
Cornicen - Horn Blower worked with the Signifer drawing the attention of the men to the Signum Centuriae and issuing the audible commands of the officers.
Imaginifer - carried the standard bearing the image of the Emperor.
Decanus – leader of a contubernium (tent group): consisted of 8 men. Ten to a century, similar to a lance corporal.

Centuriones – Centurions, a very broad category. The name means “the hundred man” and naturally derived from the position of one commanding about a hundred men. However, since, as you can see from the previous positions, the Romans had descriptive titles in the military as opposed to actual ranks. Therefore, over time, this name was used for a wide variety of ranking positions.

Centurio – Centurion, commanding a regular century of 80-100 men. Almost always, a career soldier promoted through the ranks - modern equivalent, Captain, commanding a Company. This would make his assistants, Optio et Tesserarius, the equivalent of First and Second Lieutenants. Here is where we are forced to a comparison that is sure to fail in certain ways. The responsibilities correspond. However, since the middle ages, armies, even in democracies, have maintained a class system where officers are upper-class gentlemen, while NCOs and below are "commoners." The Centurion and his aides were all "commoners."
Within the title of Centurion, there were degrees of seniority and responsibility based on the particular Century that he commanded. There were 59 centuries in a standard legion, arranged in ten cohorts. The First Century of the First Cohort was the highest-ranking and the 6th Century of the tenth Cohort was the lowest.
The centuries in the First Cohort were double strength or 160-200 men. The centurions commanding these would have the responsibility of a Major.
The Centurion commanding the first Century of a normal cohort had responsibility for the whole cohort or about 500 men and could be compared to a Major or a Lieutenant Colonel. While all of these were centurions, their rank differed.

The Centurion in command of the First Cohort's first centuria, also known as the Primus Pilus ("First Pillar"), commanded roughly 800–1,000 men in the cohort. He was the most senior soldier in the Legion with a modern responsibility equivalent of a Colonel (either Lieutenant or Full). Only the eight officers at the beginning of this discussion would out-rank him. The Primus Pilus had a place in the war councils along with the military tribunes and the Legate of the Legion.
 
Praefectus Praetorio said:
Centurio – Centurion, commanding a regular century of 80-100 men. Almost always, a career soldier promoted through the ranks - modern equivalent, Captain, commanding a Company. This would make his assistants, Optio et Tesserarius, the equivalent of First and Second Lieutenants.
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Praefectus Praetorio said:
Optio Centuriae – “pick of the century” second in command of a Century, carried a hastile as a symbol and weapon of command.
Tesserarius – watch or guard commander, third in command of Century.
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Interesting presentation, PP.

Concerning the optio, I always have heard, this rank was more or less comparable to the today's warrant officers, i. e. the highest category of NCO's. Like a warrant officer today, an optio had specialised technical tasks, commanding a team. Furthermore, the role of 'pick of the century' could refer to a function comparable to the modern company/battery/squadron/regimental sergeant major. Curiously, unit sergeant majors in the 18th century Prussian army were called 'Spiess', meaning 'pick', because of the disticntive spur-like weapon they carried. The name 'Spiess' still persists in today's Bundeswehr for the CSM/BSM/SSM/RSM.
 
The modern system draws its roots from the late medieval mercenary system forged mostly in Italy so far as I am able to discern. So for example army ranking began with companies which originally were run by a sergeant major, a lieutenant and a captain, when more national armies were being established and larger mercenary corps for that matter the new regiments were run by a major, Lieutenant-Colonel and colonel and armies would be run by a sergeant major general (later major general), lieutenant general and general.

Now going back to the centurionate Adrian Goldsworthy in "The Complete Roman Army" gives two examples. One was an enlisted man who worked his way up through the ranks and was promoted to his first centurion posting by the vote of other soldiers (not a common practice in modern regular armies though it was in established [as by legislative act] militia at least as late as the 19th century and in other even more irregular forces even later for example in the Spanish Civil War). He went on to a variety of a successive centurion postings and even had a son who seems to have been directly commissioned as a centurion. His name was Petronius Fortunatus and his tomb was found in North Africa.

The second by the name of Caius Octavious Honoratus also buried in Africa was directly commissioned, having come from the equestrian order and served first in the Legio II Augusta in Britain before finishing a Princeps Posterior in the fifth cohort of the X Gemina.
 
Loxuru said:
Interesting presentation, PP.

Concerning the optio, I always have heard, this rank was more or less comparable to the today's warrant officers, i. e. the highest category of NCO's. Like a warrant officer today, an optio had specialised technical tasks, commanding a team. Furthermore, the role of 'pick of the century' could refer to a function comparable to the modern company/battery/squadron/regimental sergeant major. Curiously, unit sergeant majors in the 18th century Prussian army were called 'Spiess', meaning 'pick', because of the disticntive spur-like weapon they carried. The name 'Spiess' still persists in today's Bundeswehr for the CSM/BSM/SSM/RSM.
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An unreferenced entry in Wiki lists the following possible positions for an Optio:

Optio ad carcerem: chosen man on prison duty (incarceration).
Optio ad spem ordinis: optio being groomed for promotion to the rank of centurion.
Optio candidatus: optio being groomed or marked out for promotion to the rank of centurion.
Optio carceris: soldier in charge of the prison cells.
Optio centuriae: 'chosen man of the centuria'; second-in-command and rear rank officer of a centuria; classed as a duplicarius, a soldier receiving double basic pay; he carried a hastile (wooden staff).
Optio centurionis: 'chosen man of the centurion'; same as optio centuriae.
Optio custodiarum: soldier in charge of guard posts.
Optio draconarius: 'chosen man among the dragon bearers', a late Roman senior standard bearer.
Optio equitum: optio in the legionary or Praetorian cavalry (equus=horse).
Optio fabricae: soldier in charge of a workshop.
Optio navaliorum: soldier in charge of boats.
Optio praetorii: soldier attached to headquarters.
Optio principalis: optio who held supervisory rank (principales from the 2nd century onwards); not all who had the title of optio held this status.
Optio speculatorum: optio in the elite cavalry bodyguards.
Optio spei: optio being groomed for promotion to the rank of centurion.
Optio statorum: optio of military police.
Optio tribuni: assistant to a tribune.
Optio valetudinarii: orderly in charge of a hospital.
 
phlebas said:
Anyone see this story?
I'd love to live on that estate, but they are covering the remains over again

www.theguardian.com

Roman site uncovered in Scarborough hailed as first of its kind in UK

Remains of buildings near Yorkshire town said to be ‘most important Roman discovery of last decade’
www.theguardian.com www.theguardian.com
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This report doesn't mention covering the remains and Historic England may do further work on them

www.yorkshirepost.co.uk

Remains of 'high-status' Roman villa never seen before in Britain discovered beneath building site in Scarborough

Archaeologists have made one of the most stunning Roman finds ever unearthed in Britain on the site of a new housing development in a village near Scarborough.
www.yorkshirepost.co.uk www.yorkshirepost.co.uk
 
old slave said:
This report doesn't mention covering the remains and Historic England may do further work on them

www.yorkshirepost.co.uk

Remains of 'high-status' Roman villa never seen before in Britain discovered beneath building site in Scarborough

Archaeologists have made one of the most stunning Roman finds ever unearthed in Britain on the site of a new housing development in a village near Scarborough.
www.yorkshirepost.co.uk www.yorkshirepost.co.uk
Click to expand...
Archeological sites are often reburied between excavations to prevent looting. This is especially common in Egypt. I have heard of it being done in Britain as well.
 
I posted this in my crucifixion story, Goth Girl (https://www.cruxforums.com/xf/threads/the-fate-of-a-goth-girl.8750/page-22#post-604092). It seems worthwhile posting here.

When we think of the Roman Empire, visions of brutal conquest, enslavement, tyrannical Emperors, and rule by intimidation (such as the always popular flagellation and crucifixion) come to mind. And, indeed all of these happened. But, if we focus on just these, we miss a truly remarkable development in government and nationality that first occurred under Roman rule.

Roman citizenship was a legal concept carrying significant rights. Originally this was reserved for the Romans who lived in Rome and the nearby countryside. Soon, growth forced the granting of “Latin Rights,” a kind of junior citizenship, to the inhabitants of Latium, the region immediately surrounding Rome. In the 90s BC, there were the “Social Wars," in which Rome’s allies in Italy (social came from socii or allies) revolted and to end the conflict, Rome passed the Lex Iulia de Civitate Latinis Danda in 90 BC, granted the rights of the civitas Romanum to all allied states in Italy except the Gauls in Northern Italy.

After this, the granting of citizenship was used as a way to bind new conquests to Rome. It was a powerful boast of the Apostle Paul when he said to the Roman officer who was about to have him flogged, "Civis romanus sum (I am a Roman citizen)."

In the early 2nd century BC, the Porcian Laws guaranteed a citizen the right to appear before a proper court and to defend oneself, the right to appeal from the decisions of magistrates and to appeal the lower court decisions; they could not be tortured or whipped and could commute sentences of death to voluntary exile unless found guilty of treason. If accused of treason, a Roman citizen had the right to be tried in Rome, and even if sentenced to death, no Roman citizen could be sentenced to die on the cross.

In 212 AD, the Edict of Caracalla (officially the Constitutio Antoniniana) declared that all free men in the Roman Empire were to be given full Roman citizenship and all free women in the Empire were given the same rights as Roman women.

It is perhaps difficult for us today to understand the depth of this change in policy. Previous concepts of ethnicity and nationality would never have conceived of such a thing.

In 383 AD, in our story, virtually everyone but slaves and the newly arrived Goths were Roman citizens and felt a part of the Roman Empire. While I have identified some ethnic backgrounds to help your understanding of the characters, they all (with the mentioned exceptions) would have regarded themselves as Romans, citizens of that ancient city, and of the sprawling Empire that ringed the entire Mediterranean.
 
Praefectus Praetorio said:
I posted this in my crucifixion story, Goth Girl (https://www.cruxforums.com/xf/threads/the-fate-of-a-goth-girl.8750/page-22#post-604092). It seems worthwhile posting here.

When we think of the Roman Empire, visions of brutal conquest, enslavement, tyrannical Emperors, and rule by intimidation (such as the always popular flagellation and crucifixion) come to mind. And, indeed all of these happened. But, if we focus on just these, we miss a truly remarkable development in government and nationality that first occurred under Roman rule.

Roman citizenship was a legal concept carrying significant rights. Originally this was reserved for the Romans who lived in Rome and the nearby countryside. Soon, growth forced the granting of “Latin Rights,” a kind of junior citizenship, to the inhabitants of Latium, the region immediately surrounding Rome. In the 90s BC, there were the “Social Wars," in which Rome’s allies in Italy (social came from socii or allies) revolted and to end the conflict, Rome passed the Lex Iulia de Civitate Latinis Danda in 90 BC, granted the rights of the civitas Romanum to all allied states in Italy except the Gauls in Northern Italy.

After this, the granting of citizenship was used as a way to bind new conquests to Rome. It was a powerful boast of the Apostle Paul when he said to the Roman officer who was about to have him flogged, "Civis romanus sum (I am a Roman citizen)."

In the early 2nd century BC, the Porcian Laws guaranteed a citizen the right to appear before a proper court and to defend oneself, the right to appeal from the decisions of magistrates and to appeal the lower court decisions; they could not be tortured or whipped and could commute sentences of death to voluntary exile unless found guilty of treason. If accused of treason, a Roman citizen had the right to be tried in Rome, and even if sentenced to death, no Roman citizen could be sentenced to die on the cross.

In 212 AD, the Edict of Caracalla (officially the Constitutio Antoniniana) declared that all free men in the Roman Empire were to be given full Roman citizenship and all free women in the Empire were given the same rights as Roman women.

It is perhaps difficult for us today to understand the depth of this change in policy. Previous concepts of ethnicity and nationality would never have conceived of such a thing.

In 383 AD, in our story, virtually everyone but slaves and the newly arrived Goths were Roman citizens and felt a part of the Roman Empire. While I have identified some ethnic backgrounds to help your understanding of the characters, they all (with the mentioned exceptions) would have regarded themselves as Romans, citizens of that ancient city, and of the sprawling Empire that ringed the entire Mediterranean.
Click to expand...
Perhaps a little off topic, although adds context to the study of Roman slavery to remember that ethnicity had little to do with one's status as a slave until European colonists invented the idea that skin tone reflected social status. It was a way of shoe horning the horrors and obvious wrongs of slavery into a fundamentally Christian society. Make dark people 'less human' then somehow they fall outside the protection afforded by the scriptures.
There's records of Roman leadership debating whether to make slaves wear uniforms. An idea rapidly abandoned because if slaves knew how numerous they were, then they might take over! the point being that you couldnt identify a slave from a poor citizen from a soldier of empire by the colour of their skin!. Nor their clothing, as some slaves were far richer than poorer roman citizens.
 
Puritan said:
Perhaps a little off topic, although adds context to the study of Roman slavery to remember that ethnicity had little to do with one's status as a slave until European colonists invented the idea that skin tone reflected social status. It was a way of shoe horning the horrors and obvious wrongs of slavery into a fundamentally Christian society. Make dark people 'less human'then somehow they fall outside the protection afforded by the scriptures.
There's records of Roman leadership debating whether to make slaves wear uniforms. An idea rapidly abandoned because if slaves knew how numerous they were, then they might take over! the point being that you couldnt identify a slave from a poor citizen from a soldier of empire by the colour of their skin!. Nor their clothing, as some slaves were far richer than poorer roman citizens.
Click to expand...
I think religion in Europe played a role as well. Certainly there were English slaves in Spanish galleys (that was a judicial punishment, though), and Protestants enslaved Catholics and vice versa. The relation between the English and the Irish, while maybe not formally "slavery", was often damned close to it. But yes, non-Christian "heathen" populations (not just Africans but Amerindians as well) were enslaved and exploited--they were apparently "outside" God's "chosen" circle.
 
Frank Petrexa said:
But yes, non-Christian "heathen" populations (not just Africans but Amerindians as well) were enslaved and exploited--they were apparently "outside" God's "chosen" circle.
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The problem though was what would happen when the "heathen" populations stopped being heathen.
Then religion couldn't straightforwardly be used to justify their summary subjugation ... they would now be part of God's chosen circle.
Since forbidding the Church to proselytize among the conquered peoples wasn't an option, some other reason had to be handwaved into existence, why they would be considered inferior even after full conversion of their societies ... and that's essentially where the racist ideas were cooked up.
 
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